Glossary

Acts—book of the New Testament that provides a history of regional events in the first century CE

Acts 9:2—“He went to the high priest and asked him for letters to the synagogues in Damascus, so that if he found any there who belonged to the Way, whether men or women, he might take them as prisoners to Jerusalem.”

Ain Musa—lit., “Moses’ Spring;” located east of Wadi Musa and used by the Nabataeans as a fresh water source for Petra Central

Alexander the Great—356–323 BC; traveled south down the Mediterranean coast to Egypt in 332 BCE; Although he did not attempt to conquer Petra, he did confiscate tons of their trade goods when he captured the port of Gaza. Alexander’s successor, Antigonus, did attempt to take Petra, but was not entirely successful.

Alexandrian—characteristic of the Hellenistic (Greek) culture of Alexandria in the last three centuries BC

al Deir—lit., “the Monastery;” the massive tomb northwest of Petra Central’s museum

al-Uzza—fertility goddess associated with the Syrian Atargatis and later with the Greek Aphrodite

alpha, beta, delta, and so on—Alpha α, beta β, and delta δ are the first, second, and fourth letters of the Greek alphabet.

Amazon—member of a race of female warriors who repeatedly warred with the Greeks of mythology

anthropomorphic—having human characteristics

Aphrodite—Greek goddess of love and beauty

apse—projecting part of a church that is usually semicircular and vaulted

Aqaba—the port city on the Gulf of Aqaba (an arm of the Red Sea) south of Petra

aqueduct—manmade channel for carrying water; The Nabataeans constructed tens of miles of water channels to deliver water by means of gravity from the surrounding area to Petra.

Aramaic—the Semitic language that was the common language of the region during Nabataean times

Arava—(or Arabah) refers to the desert valley region in the Great Rift Valley south of the Dead Sea, west of the red hills of Edom, and east of Israel’s Negev; Parts of it are below sea level.

arcosolium—niche with an arched roof carved within a tomb; A body would be placed inside the niche.

Aretas III—(Philhellenos), 84–62 BCE; The Khazneh likely was built during his reign.

Aretas IV—(Philodemos = He who loves his people), 9 BCE–40 CE; Visited Jerusalem and according to 2 Cor. 11:32 was the king whose governor in Damascus wanted Paul arrested. He likely also built the theater.

ashlar—large square or rectangular block of stone cut to function as a building block

Assyrian—characteristic of the culture of ancient Assyria (Syria)

Avdat—(Greek: Oboda, Eboda) Nabataean caravan city located in Israel’s Negev; It was located on the Nabataean trade route between Petra and Gaza.

bas-relief—raised sculptural work, usually on a wall or vertical surface

basilica—early Christian church that included a nave, aisles, and a high transept with an apse

Bdoul—the Bedouin tribe formerly living in the Petra site and now housed in a small village just north of and within view of Petra

Bedouin—a nomadic Arab

Beer Sheva—(Beersheba) this ancient tell is located on the Negev’s northern edge and in Israel; It too was an important site in antiquity.

betyl—Greek word referring to the stone “god” blocks or house of the god; Betyls at Petra frequently are rectangular non-representational stones carved inside a niche and are thought to have been the place home for a god or gods.

Bierling, Neal—archaeologist at Petra working with Patricia Bikai and collaborating with other onsite archaeologists

Bikai, Patricia—Associate Director of ACOR (American Center of Oriental Research) in Amman and a director of excavations at Petra

Bishop's Chapel—See the entry for the Blue Chapel.

Blue Chapel—church structure situated between the Byzantine Mosaic Church and the Ridge Church; Its name comes from its distinctive blue granite columns, and the Blue Chapel complex may have functioned as the residence of Petra’s church bishop.

Byzantine—relating to the Byzantine Empire (esp. fourth–sixth century CE)

Caesar—Both Julius and his adopted son, Octavian (Caesar Augustus) had positive dealings with the family of Herod the Great, the Idumean, whose mother was from Petra by 47 BCE and following.

capital—the top most part of a column that takes the weight of the structure

cardo maximus—the main street in a Roman city; The Romans classified Petra’s Colonnade Street as the main street.

cella—the inner chamber of a temple

chancel—the space around the altar of the church; It separates the altar from the space where the congregation gathers.

chancel screen—decorative marble screen perhaps one yard or meter high that separates the space around the altar

Church of the Virgin Mary—appears to have been the main church at Petra; It is also known as the Mosaic Church, and according to some of the recovered scrolls its official name was the “Blessed and All-Holy Lady, the most Glorious Mother of God and Ever-Virgin Mary.”

cistern—artificial, often underground, reservoir for storing water

colonnade—a series of regularly spaced columns, which may be used to support part of a roof as in a church, temple, or over a street

Colonnade Street—the cardo maximus at Petra

Corinth—city in Greece

Corinthian—relating to the culture of ancient Corinth (Greece); elegant or eleborately ornate

2 Corinthians 11: 32-33—“In Damascus the governor under King Aretas had the city of Damascus guarded in order to arrest me. But I was lowered in a basket from a window in the wall and slipped through his hands.”

cornucopia—curved horn filled with fruit and grain, symbolizing abundance

Council of Nicea—the location for first major Byzantine church council held in 325 CE; It appears that Petra did not have a bishop at this council.

crow-step facade—Assyrian architectural feature; characterized by a set of opposing “steps” carved from rock or plaster

Damascus—capital city of present-day Syria; controlled by the Nabataean kings in the first century CE

David Roberts—Scottish painter and sketch artist who visited Petra in 1839; His lithographs were among the first that drew Europe’s attention to exotic Petra.

Dead Sea—mineral-rich body of water north and west of Petra located in the Great Rift Valley; The Nabataeans collected asphalt from it as a trade product.

Diversion Dam—constructed by the Nabataeans at the entrance to the Siq to divert the waters of Wadi Musa from the Siq into the Wadi Muthlim; It carried the waters through a Nabataean-cut tunnel, around the mountain of El Khubtha, down to the Wadi Mataha, and back to the Wadi Musa.

Dionysus—(Bacchus) Greek god of wine; Dionysus may have been identified with the Nabataean Dushara.

Dioscuri—Castor and Pollux, twin sons of Zeus and Leda; may be pictured on the Khazneh’s facade between the first two columns (left to right) and the last two columns in the two equestrian groups

Djin or “Spirit” blocks—Arabic name given to the carved stone towers in the Bab al-Siq (Gateway to the Siq), likely used as tombs

Doric columns—simplest column in Greek architecture

Dushara (Dusaras or Dusarios)—the main Nabataean god, whose name means “Master of Sharay,” referring to the mountains east of Petra

Edomites—Semitic people living south of the Dead Sea during biblical times

Eleutheropolis—the Latin name (City of the Free) for a former city in Idumea 25 miles (40 km) southwest of Jerusalem, a site known as Beth Guvrin today; It is “pictured” on the Byzantine mosaics recovered at Umm er-Rasas in Jordan north of Petra.

Emperor Hadrian—named Petra after himself, Hadrian Petra around 130 CE; Petra had been annexed into the Roman Empire (106 CE) during the reign of the previous emperor, Trajan, who also declared it a metropolis, a “mother city” by 114 CE.

Emperor Trajan—The Roman emperor (98-117 CE) at the time Petra was annexed to the empire in 106 CE. Inscriptions with his name were found in the Small Temple and elsewhere.

En Gedi—oasis on the western shore of the Dead Sea where balsam (a perfume) was produced and traded by the Nabataeans

Esau—brother to the biblical Jacob and putative head of the Edomites

Ez-Zantur—Nabataean residential area south of the Great Temple containing frescoed mansions reminiscent of Pompeii

facade—front of a building or structure, perhaps elaborate decorated, as with the Khazneh

font—receptacle for water used in baptism as those recovered in the Byzantine churches

frankincense and myrrh—fragrant incense (in the Bible, one of the gifts given to the infant Jesus by the wise men)

fresco—a painting on wet plaster

frieze—sculptured, ornamented section of a building

Galatia—An ancient country in Asia Minor (Turkey), which later became a Roman province.

Gaza—seaport on the southern Mediterranean coast used by the Nabataeans gorgon—three snake-haired women from Greek mythology whose appearance make the viewer turn to stone

Great Temple—the largest freestanding structure in Petra Central and excavated from 1993–2004

griffin—mythical animal with the head, front body, legs, and wings of an eagle and the body, hind legs, and tail of a lion

Hasmonean—dynasty ruling Judea in the second century BCE; their relationship with the Nabataeans tended to be a stormy one.

Hellenistic—relating to Greek culture after the reign of Alexander the Great

Herod (the Great)—an Idumean, a descendant of Esau, whose mother was from Petra

Herod Antipas—a son of Herod; married but then divorced a daughter of Petra’s king

Herodian—refers to Herod’s family and a style of building

Herodias—former wife to Herod’s son, Herod Philip I, divorced and then married Herod’s son Herod Antipas

Herodium—an elaborate fortress-palace complex located south of Jerusalem built by Herod the Great with styles reflected at Petra

heroon—mausoleum commemorating a honored ruler (or deified one) such as the Monastery

High Place—The Nabataean Processional Way leads up to where the Nabataeans conducted sacrifices to their gods and today offers beautiful vistas of Petra.

in situ—in a natural, or the original, position

Indiana Jones and The Last Crusade—movie starring Harrison Ford and Sean Connery, and filmed partially in Petra, Jordan (Paramount Pictures, 1989)

Isis—Egyptian goddess of nature (wife and sister of Osiris)

Jebel al-Khubtha—the mountain into which the Royal Tombs were constructed

Jebel Haroun—lit., “Mount Aaron;” one of the possible locations for the location of Aaron’s death; located south of Petra Central on top of which is a Muslim mosque and a Byzantine monastery complex

Jebel Um al-Amr—a peak on al-Khubtha

Jerusalem—capital city of Judea for the Hasmoneans and Herod the Great

John the Baptist—Jewish religious figure during the first century CE (baptised Jesus); beheaded by Herod Antipas, a son of Herod the Great

Jordan River—river that flows from the Sea of Galilee into the Dead Sea

Josephus—first century CE Jewish historian and a main source for the history of Petra

Joukowsky, Martha Sharp—excavator of Petra’s Great Temple from 1993–2004 and now retired professor from Brown University

Judea—originally a region west of the Dead Sea with its capital city in Jerusalem

Khazneh (al-Faraoun)—lit., “Treasury of the Pharaoh”

Leda—On the facade of the Khazneh, between the first two columns (left to right) and the last two columns are two equestrian groups (the Dioscuri—Castor and Pollux, twin sons of Zeus and Leda). According to classical mythology, Leda was one of the women with whom Zeus had an affair.

Lion Fountain—located in the Wadi Farasa on the ascent/descent to the High Place

loculi—(loculus, sing.) chambers or cells in a tomb into which the deceased were placed

Madaba Map—a mosaic map of the “Holy Land” recovered in the ruins of a Byzantine church in Madaba, Jordan; Petra is named on the map.

Malichus I (Malchus)—king of Petra from 59–30 BCE; He had to contend with the machinations of Rome, Cleopatra, and Herod. He was king in Herod’s time. Herod had to fight him on orders of Antony and Cleopatra while they warred at Actium in 31 BCE.

Malichus II (Malchus)—king of Petra from 40–70 CE; The Urn Tomb may have been carved for this king. It was converted into a church in 446.

Marcus Aurelius—Roman emperor (161-180).

martyr—a person who chooses to suffer for his/her faith rather than renounce it

mensa sacra—“sacred table” as in the courtyard by the High Place on Jebel Attuf

Monastery (al Deir)—Petra’s most impressive Nabataean monument

Mosaic Church—located north of the Colonnade Street; likely functioned as Petra’s cathedral during the Byzantine Period

mosaics—picture or decoration composed of pieces of inlaid colored stone or glass

Nabataea—for approximately two centuries (first century BCE–first century CE), the area under control of Petra’s king; ranged from northwest Arabia north to Damascus and parts of the Negev

Nabataean—refers to nomadic people who moved into the Petra region by the fourth century BCE; can be identified by specific aspects of their culture, such as ceramics

naos—an inner part of a shrine

Nassara—means “Nazarene,” a term used by Arabs to refer to Christians; This Nabataean suburb continued in use during the Byzantine Period during which Christians carved crosses in tombs leading to the Arabic name Moghar al Nassara, “Cave of the Christians.”

nave—the main part of a church

nefash—Semitic word meaning “breath” or “spirit” of a person, which may have been represented by an obelisk as at the Obelisk Tomb

Negev—southern desert north of Sinai and south of Judea through which Nabataean trade moved from Petra to Gaza

niche—a recess in a wall, esp. for a statue

Nike—Greek goddess of victory

nymph—lesser female deities in Greek mythology living in woods and by springs

nymphaeum—Petra’s large public fountain supplied with water from Moses’ Spring, likely graced with numerous statues of nymphs

obelisk—upright four-sided stone pillar that tapers as it rises and ends in a pyramid

Obodas I (Obodianas)—(Avdat), 96–85 BCE (al-Deir, the Monastery perhaps made to honor this god-king a century after him) He was buried in the Negev’s Avdat.

Obodas II—62–59 BCE, some scholars debate the existence of this king

Obodianas—see Obodas

opus sectile—paving stones larger than the typical mosaic tesserae set in a geometrical or stylized pattern

orthostat—Greek term used to distinguish architectural features like columns and pilasters

pagan—term given to people who are not Christians, Jews, or Muslims

Palmyra—ancient city in northern Syria (or ancient Assyria) well known for its architecture contemporary to Nabataean Petra

papyrus—ancient writing material made from the papyrus plant

Paul—first century CE Christian apostle and missionary

peristyle—portico with columns surrounding a courtyard

Peter— first century CE Christian apostle and missionary

Petra Central—Petra’s “downtown;” the location of its Colonnade Street, temples, and churches

pilaster—slender engaged pier with no structural function in a building or on a facade

Pompeii—ancient city in south-western Italy destroyed (preserved) in the 79 CE eruption of Mt. Vesuvius; The frescoes recovered at Petra are compared to those of Pompeii.

portico—colonnade or covered porch, esp. at the entrance of a building

pronaos—the covered space between a colonnade on the facade and the interior of a temple or building; the vestibule or porch area

propylaeum—the elaborate vestibule area of a building

pulpit—elevated platform used in preaching

Qasr (or Kasr) al-Bint (Faroun)—lit., “Fortress (Castle) of the Pharaoh’s Daughter”

radiocarbon date—A Carbon-14 test is done on a piece of wood, for example, to help determine when the tree was cut and the wood then used as a bench in a church or temple.

Rabel II—(Soter = Redeemer, who brings his people life and freedom), 70–106 CE; With his death, Rome annexed Nabatea.

Rekem (Reqem/Rekmu)—Nabataean name for Petra

relic—an object from the past of memorial interest for people such as the bone of a saint

reliquary—receptacle (such as a box or chest) for relics

Ridge Church—to date it is the oldest church (fourth century CE) recovered at Petra; Its original name is unknown

Royal Tombs—name given to the elaborate tombs cut into the cliff face of Jebel al-Khubtha

Russell, Ken—American archaeologist at Petra who first identified ruins on site as a church, the Mosaic Church. He died tragically in May 1992 and is buried at Petra.

Saracens—name given to the nomadic tribes in the Transjordan by the Romans

Sassanians—Persian dynasty during the third–seventh centuries CE

Semitic—relating to a group of people living in southwestern Asia represented now by Jews and Arabs and in ancient times by Babylonians, Assyrians, Arameans, Canaanites, and Phoenicians

Sextius Florentinus—tomb located northeast of the Royal Tombs; Above the tomb’s doorway is the head of a gorgon with the snaky hair. Below this gorgon’s head is a faint inscription in Latin, a son dedicating this tomb to his dad, Sextius Florentinus, who had been legate (governor) to Emperor Hadrian in this province of Arabia. The inscription dates this tomb between 126–130 CE.

sherd—(shard) a pottery fragment

Siq—tectonic forces initiated this gorge, which was then eroded by water and wind

Small Temple (Sara's Temple)—smaller temple located to the west of the Great Temple, dating to the time of Roman Emperor Trajan (98–117 CE) sphinx—ancient Egyptian image of a creature with a lion’s body and a man’s head, a ram’s head, or a hawk’s head

stele—(stelae, pl) the Greek name for an upright stone slab frequently seen with sculptured relief or inscription

Strabo—first century BCE Greek historian and geographer

Street of Facades—between the Khazneh and the theater are 100s of tombs with ornate facades; thus, the name

stucco—exterior finish on walls made with sand, lime, and cement in decorative moldings

Temenos Gate—gate at the end of the Colonnade Street; temenos is a Greek word referring to an open-space sacred area

Temple of the Winged Lions—opposite the Great Temple and the Wadi Mousa; linked to the Colonnade Street by a bridge

tholos—Greek term for a circular building usually surrounded by columns; The Khazneh, for example, is topped by a tholos feature.

triclinium—a dining chamber fitted with a three-part reclining couch, used at meal times

Tyche (Fortuna)—Greek goddess of fortune, chance, and prosperity

Um (Umm) al-Biyara—“The Mother of All Cisterns,” is the mountain west of and overshadowing the Qasr al-Bint Temple. The summit has an Edomite occupation that dates to the seventh–sixth centuries BCE. Its inhabitants survived by digging cisterns and channeling water to them. Some have suggested that this site was the location of the biblical Sela. A seal impression was recovered here referring to “Qos-Gabr, King of Edom,” a king also mentioned in seventh century BCE Assyrian texts. Um (Umm) er-Rasas—A Byzantine church site north of Petra and southeast of Madaba, Jordan; contemporary with the churches at Petra; Its Byzantine levels are noted for its mosaics that “picture” churches in Jordan and Palestine.

Urn Tomb—Nabataean “Royal Tomb” (Malichus II or Aretas IV?) cut into the rock face of Jebel el Khubtha; converted into a church in 447 CE

wadi—the valley of a stream that is usually dry except in the rainy season

Wadi al Deir—wadi leading up to the mountain path to al Deir, the Monastery Tomb

Wadi Farasa—provides an alternative route up to the High Place with the Obelisks

Wadi Kharareeb—The trail to the al Deir (Monastery) starts along the sandy bottom of this wadi.

Wadi Mataha—See the entry for Wadi Muthlim.

Wadi Musa (Wadi Mousa)—lit., “Valley of Moses;” a mostly dry water course from which today’s village takes its name

Wadi Muthlim—accepts the diverted Wadi Musa water through the Nabataean Diversion Dam and tunnel; The diverted water then flows from the Wadi Muthlim into the Wadi Mataha and then returns to the Wadi Musa near the Nymphaeum.

Wadi Siyagh—west of Petra Central and former location of a Petra suburb plus a quarry; It has a perpetual spring, which provides a swimming hole for Bedouin youths.